Tuesday, March 24, 2009

Monday, March 16, 2009


H. M. Sultan Qaboos bin Said


His Majesty was born in Salalah in Dhofar, the southern region of Oman, on the 18th of November 1940. He is the only son of the late Sultan Said bin Taimur and is eighth in the direct line of the Al Busaidy dynasty, which was founded in 1744 by Imam Ahmad bin Said, who was a leader of outstanding ability and came to power after a period of civil war, bringing peace and stability to the land. His Majesty spent his youth in Salalah where he was educated. At the age of 16, his father sent him to a private educational establishment in England. In 1960, he entered the Royal Military Academy at Sandhurst as an officer cadet. Having passed out of Sandhurst he joined a British infantry battalion on operational duty in Germany for one year and also held a staff appointment with the British Army. After his military service His Majesty studied local government in England and went on a world tour before returning home. The next 6 years were spent in Salalah studying Islam and the history of his country and people. On the abdication of his father and his own accession on 23rd July 1970, His Majesty arrived in Muscat to begin the task for which he had been destined. On the 9th August Sultan Qaboos made the first of many speeches setting out his vision for the people and the country. He declared that the country would have a new flag and that it would no longer be called 'Muscat and Oman' but unified with Dhofar as the Sultanate of Oman. Restrictions on freedom of movement were lifted and Omanis who had left the country were invited to return to take part in the challenge that lay ahead.


International Relations


In 1970, Oman had been isolated from the rest of the world for far too long and it was now essential to open up the country and develop proper international relations which had been almost non-existent. From the time of his accession, His Majesty's foreign policy has always been to extend the hand of friendship to all countries on the basis of non-interference in each other's internal affairs, mutual respect, peaceful co-existence and good neighbourliness.


Meeting the People


His Majesty attaches great importance to meeting his people and, every year, he makes a point of travelling to a particular area of the country to see for himself what must be done and what the needs of his people are, who thus have direct access to their Sultan and can discuss their problems personally with him. There is always a massive turnout of people whenever His Majesty is due to visit a particular town or area. People of all age grouped and walks of life spontaneously celebrate with music and dance their joy and happiness at his arrival. Over the past 25 years His Majesty has extended great personal care to his people and to humanitarian causes. He has given financial assistance to worthy causes both outside and within Oman. It was His Majesty who made the first contribution to the Omani Organisation for Charitable Works. He has always shown particular concern for those in society who are disadvantaged. In 1995 His Majesty made a personal donation of RO. 1.5 million to 42,047 families on social security, and to coincide with National Day he donated a kidney stone dispersal machine to the Ministry of Health. His Majesty has greatly helped young people to lead a happy and fruitful life.



Royal Amnesty


In early November 1995 His Majesty ordered an amnesty for all those prisoners who had been convicted of involvement in illegal activities and organisations. Pardon was also granted to the members of such groups who had remained abroad in exile. This was a magnanimous gesture, particularly to the families of those concerned, which was well received and is typical of the way in which His Majesty has won the hearts of his people by showing tolerance and forgiveness. Many world leaders and statesmen have praised the qualities of His Majesty; his dedication to his country and to his people; his commitment and unswerving determination to achieve progress and development; his role on the world stage and his patriotic and humanitarian feelings.


Silver Jubilee


CelebrationsCelebrations in honour of His Majesty were held both spontaneously and officially throughout the country during November 1995 with all kinds of festivities, illuminations, decorations, programmes and parades too numerous to mention. The 26th National Day is being held at Sur which will be the focus for major industrial and commercial expansion in the years to come.


Historic Speech


His Majesty delivered a landmark speech on the 25th National Day, praising the contribution made by his countrymen in building the nation and urging them to greater achievements in the years to come. "Countrymen, You have all played your part in the making of this new chapter in Oman history. Everyone has made his own contribution, according to his ability, in building this structure for our future.' Referring to the new era of Oman's development, His Majesty said:- "This phase will be full of the highest expectations, but contain great challenges which will require from you unflagging determination, strong arms and clear minds. This phase will call for intensive work, effort and sacrifice for your country".His Majesty stressed the importance of economic diversification and the role of the private sector, calling upon all citizens to save, invest, pursue business, develop tourism, industry and agriculture. In his speech, His Majesty placed great emphasis on the development of human resources as the way forward for the Omani people, stressing, in particular, the importance of general and technological education.


Domestic & International


PoliciesWith introduction of the new Five-Year Plan, His Majesty reiterated the need for concerted effort by all concerned to plan and implement a new phase in the country's development. During the conference on Oman's economy to the year 2020 in June 1995, His Majesty had urged the private sector to play an active role in the diversification of the economy in order to create new wealth and jobs for the Omani people. His Majesty has encouraged the democratic process through the Majlis al-Shura and given great emphasis to the advancement of women in all spheres of the country's life. His Majesty has successfully maintained a delicate balance between preserving the traditions and religion of his country and introducing the modernisation needed to keep pace with the changes taking place in the rest of the world. Peace In the Middle East

His Majesty has spoken out strongly against terrorism and fanatism. He has stressed his belief that international disputes must be settled through negotiation and not conflict. His mediation, when invited to do so, has earned him the respect of the world community. His Majesty was the only Arab leader who supported the late President Anwar Sadat's mission to Israel, which led to the Camp David peace accord, and has consistently urged forward the peace process in the Middle East. His Majesty regards the achievement of a comprehensive and lasting peace in the region as being of the highest priority, and has worked tirelessly to this end.


BIOGRAPHY

1940: Born in Salalah.

Late 1950s, early 1960s: Studies in Great Britain, first at a college in Bury, later at the Royal Military Academy at Sandhurst.

1970 July 23: Qaboos becomes sultan, prime minister, defence and foreign minister. Under Qaboos, Oman entered the Arab League and the United Nations.

1970s: Using oil revenues, Qaboos builds the infrastructure of backward Oman.

1975: With foreign help, Qaboos succeeds in suppressing the uprising in the Dhofar region.

1978: Qaboos gives his support to the Camp David Accords between Egypt and Israel, as the only Arab leader. He continues having contacts with both Egypt and the other other Arab countries.

1981: Qaboos participates in the founding of GCC, Gulf Co-operation Council.

1993: Qaboos is active in the Middle East peace process, following the Oslo Agreement, hosting conferences.

Sunday, March 15, 2009


Early Islamic period

Oman adopted Islam in the 7th century A.D., during the lifetime of the prophet Muhammad. Ibadism became the dominant religious sect in Oman by the 8th century A.D. Oman is the only country in the Islamic world with a majority Ibadi population. Ibadhism is known for its "moderate conservatism." One distinguishing fe ature of Ibadism is the choice of ruler by communal consensus and consent.
Until 1970 the political title for the nation's rulers was "Sultan of Muscat and Oman", implying two historically irreconcilable political cultures: the coastal tradition, the more cosmopolitan, secular, Muscat tradition of the coast ruled by the sultan; and the interior tradition of insularity, tribal in origin and ruled by an imam according to the ideological tenets of Ibadism. The more cosmopolitan has been the ascending political culture since the founding of the Al Said dynasty in 1744, although the imamate tradition has found intermittent expression.[3]
Several millennia ago, Arab tribes migrated eastward to Oman, coinciding with the increasing presence in the region of peoples from present-day Iran. In the sixth century, Arabs succeeded in repelling encroachments of these ethnic groups; the conversion of Arab tribes to Islam in the seventh century resulted in the displacement of the settlers from Iran. The introduction of Ibadism vested power in the imam, the leader nominated by the ulema.[3] The imam's position was confirmed when the imam--having gained the allegiance of the tribal sheiks--received the bay'ah (oath of allegiance) from the public.[citation needed]
In 751 Ibadi Muslims, a moderate branch of the Kharijites, established an imamate in Oman. Despite interruptions, the Ibadi imamate survived until the mid-20th century.[4]
But Oman was nonetheless conquered by several foreign powers; Oman was controlled by the Qarmatians between 931-932 and then again between 933-934. Between 972 and 1050, Oman was part of the domain of the Iranian Buyyids, and between 1053 and 1154, Oman was part of the Great Seljuk empire. In 1154, the indigenous Nabhani dynasty took control of Oman, and the Nabhani kings ruled Oman until 1470, with an interruption of 37 years between 1406 and 1443.
Muscat was taken by the Portuguese on 1 Apr 1515, and was held until 26 Jan 1650, although the Ottomans controlled Muscat between 1550-1551 and 1581-1588. In about the year 1600, Nabhani rule was temporarily restored to Oman, although that lasted only to 1624, when fifth imamate, which is also known as the Yarubid Imamate. The Yarubid Imamate, recaptured Muscat from the Portuguese in 1650 after a colonial presence on the northeastern coast of Oman dating to 1508. The Yarubid dynasty expanded, acquiring former Portuguese colonies in East Africa and engaging in the slave trade. By 1719 dynastic succession led to the nomination of Saif ibn Sultan II. His candidacy prompted a rivalry among the ulama and a civil war between the two major tribes, the Hinawi and the Ghafiri, with the Ghafiri supporting Saif ibn Sultan II. He assumed power in 1748 after the leaders of both factions had been killed in battle, but the rivalry continued, with the factionalization working in favor of the Iranians, who occupied Muscat and Sohar in 1743.[3]
The Iranians had occupied the coast before--indeed the coast was often the possession of various empires. These empires brought order to the religious and ethnic diversity of the population of this cosmopolitan region. Yet the intervention on behalf of an unpopular dynasty brought about a revolt. The leader of the revolt, Ahmad ibn Said al Said, was elected sultan of Muscat upon the expulsion of the Persians. The position of Sultan of Muscat would remain in the possession of the Al Said clan even when the imamate of Oman remained out of reach]
The Al Said clan became a royal dynasty when Ahmad ibn Said Al Said was elected imam following the expulsion of the Iranians from Muscat in 1744. Like its predecessors, Al Said dynastic rule has been characterized by a history of internecine family struggle, fratricide, and usurpation. Apart from threats within the ruling family, there was the omnipresent challenge from the independent tribes of the interior who rejected the authority of the sultan, recognizing the imam as the sole legitimate leader and pressing, by resort to arms, for the restoration of the imamate.
Schisms within the ruling family were apparent before Ahmad ibn Said's death in 1783 and were later manifest with the division of the family into two main lines, the Sultan ibn Ahmad Al Said (r. 1792-1806) line controlling the maritime state, with nominal control over the entire country; and the Qais branch, with authority over the Al Batinah and Ar Rustaq areas. During the period of Sultan Said ibn Sultan Al Said's rule (1806-56), Oman cultivated its East African colonies, profiting from the slave trade. As a regional commercial power in the nineteenth century, Oman held territories on the island of Zanzibar off the coast of East Africa, in Mombasa along the coast of East Africa, and until 1958 in Gwadar (in present-day Pakistan) on the coast of the Arabian Sea. But when the British declared slavery illegal in the mid-1800s, the sultanate's fortunes reversed. The economy collapsed, and many Omani families migrated to Zanzibar. The population of Muscat fell from 55,000 to 8,000 between the 1850s and 1870s.
The death of Sultan Said ibn Sultan in 1856 prompted a further division: the descendants of the late sultan ruled Oman (Thuwaini ibn Said Al Said, r. 1856-66) and Zanzibar (Mayid ibn Said Al Said, r. 1856-70); the Qais branch intermittently allied itself with the ulama to restore imamate legitimacy. In 1868 Azzam ibn Qais Al Said (r. 1868-71) emerged as self-declared imam. Although a significant number of Hinawi tribes recognized him as imam, the public neither elected him nor acclaimed him as such.
Imam Azzam understood that to unify the country a strong, central authority had to be established with control over the interior tribes of Oman. His rule was jeopardized by the British, who interpreted his policy of bringing the interior tribes under the central government as a move against their established order. In resorting to military means to unify Oman, Imam Azzam alienated members of the Ghafiri tribes, who revolted in the 1870-71 period. The British gave Imam Azzam's rival, Turki ibn Said Al Said, financial and political support. Turki ibn Said succeeded in defeating the forces of Imam Azzam, who was killed in battle outside Matrah in January 1871.
Late 19th century
Most of these overseas possessions were seized by the United Kingdom and by 1850 Oman was an isolated and poor area of the world.
Oman was the object of Franco-British rivalry throughout the 18th century. During the 19th century, Oman and the United Kingdom concluded several treaties of friendship and commerce. In 1908 the British entered into an agreement of friendship. Their traditional association was confirmed in 1951 through a new treaty of friendship, commerce, and navigation by which the United Kingdom recognized the Sultanate of Oman as a fully independent state.
When Sultan Sa'id bin Sultan Al-Busaid died in 1856, his sons quarreled over the succession. As a result of this struggle, the empire - through the mediation of the British Government under the "Canning Award" - was divided in 1861 into two separate principalities: Zanzibar (with its East African dependencies), and Muscat and Oman.
Early 20th century
During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the sultan in Muscat faced rebellion by members of the Ibadi sect residing in the interior of Oman, centered around the town of Nizwa, who wanted to be ruled exclusively by their religious leader, the Imam of Oman. This conflict was resolved temporarily by the Treaty of Seeb, which granted the imam autonomous rule in the interior Imamate of Oman, while recognising the nominal sovereignty of the sultan elsewhere.
The conflict flared up again in 1954, when the new imam led a sporadic 5-year rebellion against the sultan's efforts to extend government control into the interior. The insurgents were defeated in 1959 with British help. The sultan then terminated the Treaty of Seeb and eliminated the office of the imam. In the early 1960s, the imam, exiled to Saudi Arabia, obtained support from his hosts and other Arab governments, but this support ended in the 1980s. Zanzibar paid an annual subsidy to Muscat and Oman until its independence in early 1964.
In 1964, a separatist revolt began in Dhofar province. Aided by Communist and leftist governments such as the former South Yemen (People's Democratic Republic of Yemen), the rebels formed the Dhofar Liberation Front, which later merged with the Marxist-dominated Popular Front for the Liberation of Oman and the Arab Gulf (PFLOAG). The PFLOAG's declared intention was to overthrow all traditional Persian Gulf régimes. In mid-1974, the Bahrain branch of the PFLOAG was established as a separate organisation and the Omani branch changed its name to the Popular Front for the Liberation of Oman (PFLO), while continuing the Dhofar Rebellion.
1970s
Main article: 1970s in Oman
In 1970, Qaboos bin Said Al Said ousted his father, Sa'id bin Taymur, who later died in exile in London. Al Said has ruled as sultan ever since. The new sultan confronted insurgency in a country plagued by endemic disease, illiteracy, and poverty. One of the new sultan's first measures was to abolish many of his father's harsh restrictions, which had caused thousands of Omanis to leave the country, and to offer amnesty to opponents of the previous régime, many of whom returned to Oman. He also established a modern government structure and launched a major development programme to upgrade educational and health facilities, build a modern infrastructure, and develop the country's natural resources.
In an effort to curb the Dhofar insurgency, Sultan Qaboos expanded and re-equipped the armed forces and granted amnesty to all surrendering rebels while vigorously prosecuting the war in Dhofar. He obtained direct military support from the UK, Iran, and Jordan. By early 1975, the guerrillas were confined to a 50-square-kilometer (20-square-mile) area near the Yemeni border and shortly thereafter were defeated. As the war drew to a close, civil action programs were given priority throughout Dhofar and helped win the allegiance of the people. The PFLO threat diminished further with the establishment of diplomatic relations in October 1983 between South Yemen and Oman, and South Yemen subsequently lessened propaganda and subversive activities against Oman. In late 1987 Oman opened an embassy in Aden, South Yemen, and appointed its first resident ambassador to the country.
Since his accession in 1970, Sultan Qaboos has balanced tribal, regional, and ethnic interests in composing the national administration. The Council of Ministers, which functions as a cabinet, consists of 26 ministers, all directly appointed by Qaboos. The Majlis Al-Shura (Consultative Council) has the mandate of reviewing legislation pertaining to economic development and social services prior to its becoming law. The Majlis Al-Shura may request ministers to appear before it.
1990s
Main article: 1990s in Oman
In November 1996, Sultan Qaboos presented his people with the "Basic Statutes of the State," Oman's first written "constitution". It guarantees various rights within the framework of Qur'anic and customary law. It partially resuscitated long dormant conflict-of-interest measures by banning cabinet ministers from being officers of public shareholding firms. Perhaps most importantly, the Basic Statutes provide rules for setting Sultan Qaboos' succession.
Oman occupies a strategic location on the Strait of Hormuz at the entrance to the Persian Gulf, 35 miles (56 km) directly opposite Iran. Oman has concerns with regional stability and security, given tensions in the region, the proximity of Iran and Iraq, and the potential threat of political Islam. Oman maintained its diplomatic relations with Iraq throughout the Gulf War while supporting the United Nations allies by sending a contingent of troops to join coalition forces and by opening up to pre-positioning of weapons and supplies.
2000s
Main article: 2000s in Oman
In September 2000, about 100,000 Omani men and women elected 83 candidates, including two women, to seats in the Majlis Al-Shura. In December 2000, Sultan Qaboos appointed the 48-member Majlis Al Dowla, or State Council, including five women, which acts as the upper chamber in Oman's bicameral representative body.
Al Said's extensive modernization program has opened the country to the outside world and has preserved a long-standing political and military relationship with the United Kingdom, the United States, and others. Oman's moderate, independent foreign policy has sought to maintain good relations with all Middle Eastern countries.

Saturday, March 14, 2009


Oman: Location, Population, Religion, Membership, Currency.


Official Name: Sultanate of Oman


Location: Oman is bounded in the north-east by the gulf of oman and south-east by the Arabian Sea, south-east by Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. There is an enclave at the northern tip of the Musandam Peninsula between the United Arab Emirates of Ras al-Khaima in the west and Fujairah in the south-east.


Area: Oman covers an area of about 309,500 sq km (about 119,500 sq mi). Until the 1990s Oman had border disputes with its three neighbors; agreements were reached with Saudi Arabia in 1990, with Yemen in 1992, and with the United Arab Emirates in 1993. The borders with Yemen and Saudi Arabia were demarcated in 1995; the border with the United Arab Emirates awaits final demarcation. Oman is largely a desert land, with five distinct geographical regions.


Capital: Muscat


Language: Arabic is the official language of Oman, and English and Asian languages such as Hindi, Urdu, and Baluchi are also widely spoken. Swahili is spoken by some, a legacy of Oman´s former East African presence. English is widely used in business.


Religion: Islam is the official religion, although other religions are tolerated under the country´s Basic Law. Muslims make up 86 percent of the population. Three-fourths of the Muslims are Ibadis, a minority sect dating from the 8th century. Most of the remainder adhere to Sunni Islam and the rest to Shia Islam. Indian Hindus account for 13 percent of the population. There are also small numbers of non-Omani Christians.

Population: In 1997 Oman had an estimated population of 2,283,324, giving it an average density of 7 persons per sq km (19 per sq mi).The population has grown steadily, doubling between 1960 and 1993. In 1997 the growth rate was a relatively high 3.5 percent. Oman has a very young population; two-fifths of all native Omanis are under the age of 15. Only 14 percent of Omanis live in cities and towns.While most of the rest are settled in villages, a few Bedouins still practice their nomadic ways. Much of Oman´s urban population resides in the Greater Capital Area, which includes Masqat proper, the capital; Mattrah, a major port; and Ruwi, the commercial hub of Oman.
The new port of Mina´ Qaboos is also in this metropolitan area, as is Mina´ al Fahl, a loading terminal for oil supertankers. Other important cities include Nizwá, the historic seat of the Ibadi imamate (Muslim community headed by an imam) in interior Oman; Sur, an important fishing port located south of Masqat, and Salalah, the largest city and principal port of Dhofar.


Membership: Oman is a member of the UN, the Arab League, the Organization of the Islamic Conference and the Gulf Co-operation Council.


Currency: The basic unit of currency in Oman is the Omani Rial (0.38 rial equals U.S. $1; fixed rate). It is divided into 1000 baiza. The rial is the only currency circulated, although in some rural areas transactions occur outside the cash economy.


Oman Time Difference: GMT + 4